Hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units.

The electrical grid this value could be 50 Hz (Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia) or 60 Hz (North and South America).

It is named after the German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz who studied electromagnetic waves in the mid 1800's.

The electric motors are designed to operate at a given frequency. Some of our pumps motors are designed to operate independently of 50 Hz or 60 Hz.

Absorbed power is the power that the pump absorbs from the motor, to give to the liquid the deliver power.

Not all the absorbed power becomes delivered power, as some power is lost through friction and to the function of the pump itself.

The delivered power is always less than the absorbed power, and the ration between the two is a number always lower than 1.

This number is known as the efficiency.

Official DAB delegate who manages the sales of our products in North America.

Each agent has a reference territory.

It is an acronym for American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), an association of the North American steel producers.

Nowadays used throughout the world, AISI is followed by a four-digit that identifies the properties of the steel alloy in use in that product.

Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction, in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction.

Depending on the direction of liquid passing through a pump, the pump can be called axial (or inline) if the delivery and suction are on the same axis.

Type of impeller mainly used in pumps suitable for drainage of sewage. It is called "backward" because it is far from the bottom of the pump, making it more suitable for pumping water with solid bodies in suspension or particularly dense liquids.

Pressure measurement unit. The official measure for the International System is the Pascal “Pa” (the unit of measure is named after Blaise Pascal, mathematician, physicist and French philosopher). Commonly is used the bars (all written down):

1 bar = 100 kPa

1 bar = 14.5038 psi

It is a perforated bucket-shaped container that in the pumps allows to filter solid bodies.

A bearing is a machine part that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts.

The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis.

It has the same function as the retention valve but is located inside the tank from which the pump draws the suction water.

It is synonymous with bearings. They consist of two different parts, where the first is housed in the body of the support and the other one is stuffed on the pivot of the body to be supported.

Electrical component that allows the operation of single-phase motors. It is necessary to ensure the starting of single-phase motors,

It is not required in three-phase motors.

The measurement of capacitance is in Farads (abbreviated F).

All the capacitors used in DAB Pumps are measured in micro farads (abbreviated μF)

Referring to pumps, cavitation is the phenomenon that occurs when the pressure in an inner point of the pump decreases by turning the liquid into gaseous state (bubbles, hence cavitations). The bubbles are unstable and when they come out of the low pressure zone they implode creating vibrations that in the long run will damage the material or the components of the pump. Usually the most exposed structure to this negative phenomenon is the impeller.

The centrifugal pump uses an impeller to move the liquid, aspirating and moving it by the centrifugal force determined by the mechanical movement of the impeller.

It is a pump for moving/circulating the water around the heating or cooling system, a pump that runs water in a closed circuit, often with glycol.

It is necessary to know if the water is clean or dirty to use the correct pump.

For clean water we refer to drinking water,

For dirty water we refer as water that has some dirt / suspended solids or chemicals in it.

A closed contact is a contact where an electrical current can pass through

An open contact is where an electrical current cannot pass through, breaking the electrical circuit.

A closed impeller has a higher efficiency then an open type of impeller but is not suitable for pumping liquids with suspended solid bodies.

CSA group, the Canadian Standards Association, was established in 1919 as Canada’s first Standards Development Organization (SDO).

CSA Group is a global leader in standards development, testing and certification, and consumer product evaluation services to US, Canadian and many other countries standards.

The delivered power is the power delivered by the pump to the liquid. The value of this delivered power depends in three factors: flow, head, and specific weight of the pumped liquid. The higher these three factors, the higher is the power delivered by the pump. In order to pump a liquid a pump must be driven by a motor. The power that the pump needs in order to operate is called absorbed power.

Type of electrical connection in the three-phase motors, the symbol for the delta connection is ∆.

This type of connection bring to the wildings the same voltage of the line.

“Delta T” is the most common use of the word delta in the HVAC industry, meaning temperature difference. If the temperature before a cooling coil is 75°F and the temperature after the cooling coil is 55°F, subtract 55F from a 75°F to find a ∆T of 20°F

Electronic component used in electronic devices.

It is a group of switches who are manually switchable without the use of tools.

DNA (Dab Navigator Application) is DAB software that allows to find in just a few seconds the pump model that best suit your needs.

DNA uses two different logical selection criteria, for hydraulic performance or for pump model.

DNA makes available to the user the entire spare parts list as well as all the technical documentation available.

Frequent updating and easy to use.

DNA is the perfect support tool for engineers, installers and retailers, even for the end users.

"Dry run” is when the pump works without having liquid inside.

A pump should never "dry run" because if it is not adequately cooled by the liquid some parts of the pump will overheat and breaks.

Pumps can have a device that prevents them from running in the absence of liquid.

The efficiency is obtained by dividing the delivered power by the absorbed power and is normally expressed as a percentage.

For example, an efficiency of the 75% of a pump indicates that only 75% of the absorbed power is converted into delivered power, with the remaining 25% being lost due to friction. Therefore, the higher the efficiency of a pump, the smaller the portion of absorbed power being lost. The efficiency of a pump expresses better than any other parameter the quality of the pump the related savings in terms of operating costs.

Motor connection point with electric line. In three-phase motors, the connection can be delta or star. You can change them by changing the position of the connector.

Energy Star is a voluntary program launched by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and now managed by the EPA and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) that helps businesses and individuals save money and protect the environment through superior energy efficiency.

Energy Star provides simple, credible, and unbiased information that consumers and businesses rely on to make well-informed decisions to save money and reduce emissions.

Energy Star specifications differ with each item, and are set by the EPA.

Engine lower part/end part (where for example our MCE/C inverter is installed).

A family of computer networking technologies. Nowadays the Ethernet cable should at least be CAT5e. The Ethernet cable as a connector called RJ-45

The expansion tank is designed to handle the thermal expansion of water as it heats up in the water heater, preventing excessive water pressure. If water pressure gets to high it can damage valves in plumbing fixtures, joints in supply pipes and the water heater itself

Type of graphic representation of an object. In our DNA software an exploded product is always present and serves to identify the exact code of the spare parts.

Frequently Asked Questions. This section of the website, where you can find the most asked questions about our products.

The column exerts 0.433 pounds per square inch of pressure. One pound per square inch (psi) of pressure can be created using a 1-in. square column of water nearly 28 inches or 2.31 feet high.

1 Feet Column of Water  = 0.433 psi

1 psi = 28 inches or 2.31 feet column of water

Circular or oval plate for coupling tubes with screws or bolts.

Type of impeller. It is called "shim” impeller because it is close to the bottom of the pump body, therefore unsuitable for the pumping of liquid with suspended solid bodies but useful for pumping clean water. It is used for example in circulators.

It is measured in feet or meters and represents the difference in level between the position where the pump is located and the surface of the liquid to be lifted.

The ground-fault circuit interrupter, or GFCI, is a fast-acting circuit breaker designed to shut off electric power in the event of a ground-fault within as little as 1/40 of a second. It works by comparing the amount of current going to and returning from equipment along the circuit conductors.

Glycol is a chemical compound used as antifreeze in closed hydraulic circuit.

GPH is an abbreviation of Gallons Per Hour that is commonly used measurement of flow in America

GPM is the abbreviation of Gallons Per Minute which is the most commonly used measurement of flow.

GPM is the abbreviation of Gallons Per Minute which is the most commonly used measurement of flow in America.

GPH is an abbreviation of Gallons Per Hour which is another commonly used measurement flow.

Horse power is a measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower. The mechanical horse power (imperial horsepower) is:

1 hp =  745,69 Watts

The international System uses the Watt.

Hydraulic power is the hydraulic capacity of a pump, that is, the volume of liquid that is shifted to the unit of time. It is measured in gallons per minute (gpm) or cubic meters per hour (m3 / h) for very large pumps or liters per minute (l / m) for small and medium sized ones. There is a formula for converting values:

Cubic meter/hour ↔ Gallon (us)/minute

1 gal/min = 0.227125 m3/h

1 m3/h = 4.402868 gal/min

1 m3/h = 16,66 l/m

Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It consists of four alternating layers (P-N-P-N) that are controlled by a metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) gate structure without regenerative action.  It switches electric power in many applications such as variable-frequency drives (VFDs)

The impeller is a disk with blades that makes a liquid flow by aspirating it from a pipe and pushing it into another pipe through the centrifugal force.

The impeller is a rotating component that is moved by the axis of the motor and increases the prevalence, pressure and flow of the liquid (depending on the characteristics of the impeller, such as thickness or diameter). The impellers can be made of different material, metal (cast iron, bronze, steel) or technopolymer (eg Noryl or Ultem); the impeller differ for uses (low / high temperatures, corrosion resistance, different pH, etc.).

The presence of several impellers increases the prevalence and pressure.

"Inrush" means that when starting a pump it will turn the impeller for a few moments faster then usual. It is a normal function, this function reduce the probability that any solid particles deposited during the stop will prevent proper movement.

A plumber or electrician who performs the installation of the product; He should be the reference person between the end user and the DAB Pumps customer service. He is the first person to contact in the event of a problems with our product.

It is called "installer menu" because changing the parameters in this menu affects the operation of the pump and must be performed by experienced personnel (as the installer). The procedures to enter in the installer menu is different for every products. All of our manuals are available on our site or here in our DNA software.

The intake duct is the pipe in which the liquid arrives to the pump.

It is the world's most widely-used unit of measurement (essentially used anywhere except in the U.S.), also known as a decimal or metric system. It was born in 1889 from the need to standardize the units of measure among the proponent countries.

A device that changes the voltage and frequency of the alternating current at the output, allowing also to modify the operating speed of an electric motor (in our case the one in the pumps). This type of function save energy since instead of working at maximum speed the motor can work at variable speeds depending on the workload. An inverter is not indispensable for the operation of the pump.

Acronym of "International Protection" i.e. the degree of "international protection" (standard protection). It is indicated by two digits after the IP letters, the first one vary from a scale from 0 to 6 and indicates the protection at the entry of small solid bodies (sand or dust), 0 no protection, 6 maximum protection. The second number vary from a scale from 0 to 9 and indicates the protection from liquid entry, where 0 indicates the absence of protection, 9 the maximum protection.

Similar to the NEMA standard for protection against the ingress of water and/or dust.

The kilowatt hour (symbol kWh, kW⋅h or kW h) is a unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If energy is transmitted or used at a constant rate (power) over a period of time, the total energy in kilowatt hours is equal to the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours.

Local Area Network, a network of interconnected computer. This type of network means that the computers can communicate with each other, but not necessary they can communicate with the Internet.

Safety device that interrupts the flow of electric current in case of overload or short circuit. It is called magnetothermal because it works with a magnetic and thermal principle. Mandatory by law in Italy, together with the differential switch (commonly known as "life-saving switch").

It is used to isolate the chamber where the liquid circulates from the outside.

The mechanical seal is the part of the pump which is suitable for isolating two environments, among which there is a component with circular motion. For example, the mechanical seal serves to isolate the electrical part from the chamber where the liquid circulates. It is said that the seal is "mechanical" because it is the set of components pushed by a spring to prevent the liquid from reaching the electric part of the motor.

meters of water column is the unit of measure of the prevalence, 10 mwc corresponds to 1 bar of pressure (105 Pa)

The direction of rotation of an motor is invertible only in the case of three-phase motors (the single-phase motor always rotates in the right direction independently of the terminals connection). It is one of the features that must be checked when installing a three-phase pump, the rotation direction must always be the correct one to ensure the right operation.

Each manual of our products tell you how to verify the correct direction of rotation, when the pump is already installed and before installation. If the direction of rotation is incorrect, remove the current and reverse two of the three phase conductors.

Refer to the specific product manual here on our site or in our DNA software.

It means that the pump has two or more impellers

Example

If 1 impeller has a flow of 10 gpm at 20 feet head and absorbs 0.5 Hp

then 2 of the same impellers with still give 10 gpm but a double the head so 40 Feet and will absorb 1 Hp

then 3 of the same impellers with still give 10 gpm but a tripple the head so 60 Feet and will absorb 1.5 Hp

and so on and so forth.

Closure device that can be automatic or manual, allows only one direction of the flow; in the pumps is used to prevent the flow of the liquid to exit the pipes after the pump is switched off. A ball valve is commonly used in pipes (for gas or liquids), it works by rotating a ball inside the pipe that allows the opening, the closing or the reduction of the flow. Gate valve, unlike balls valve, use a shutter as a closing / opening pipe.

We need to know it to know where and when the cavitation can occur:

The Available NPSH (NPSHA): a measure of how close the fluid at a given point is to flashing, and so to cavitation.

The Required NPSH (NPSHR): the head value at a specific point (e.g. the inlet of a pump) required to keep the fluid from cavitating.

NPSH(a)>NPSH(r)

NPSH stands for Net Positive Suction Head.

The physical meaning of this expression is the absolute pressure that must exist at the suction port of the pump in order to pump the liquid without

causing cavitation.

This can occur when the absolute pressure falls to values likely to allow the formation of vapour bubbles within the fluid, causing the pump to work with reduced head.

Therefore, NPSH can also be seen as the pressure required to compensate load losses in the path between the suction port and the point with the lowest pressure of the impeller.

All this demonstrates the importance of checking that the pump is not producing cavitation, as in addition to creating high noise similar to metal hammering, cavitation will also quickly damage the impeller.

A special formula associates the NPSH value required by the pump with the conditions of the system and with the type of liquid, allowing to calculate the minimum pressure required at the suction, and consequently to determine the position in which to locate the pump in relation to the free surface of the liquid to be pumped.

The general NPSH formula is:

where:

Z1 = the difference in level (in m) between the axis of the pump and the free surface of the liquid to be pumped.

p1 = the possible pressure (in kg/cm2) on the surface of the liquid in the tank from which it is collected. If the liquid is collected from an open tank

and the surface of the liquid is in contact with the atmosphere, p1 will be equal to 0.

pb = atmospheric pressure (in kg/cm2) at the site of installation.

pv = the vapour tension (in kg/cm2) of the liquid at pumping temperature.

γ = the specific weight (in kg/dm2) of the liquid at pumping temperature.

10 = conversion factor of the units of measure used.

Hr = head loss (in m) in the suction pipework.

NSF is a Health and Safety Organization that certifies products for us in America.

NSF was originally established as the National Sanitation Foundation in 1944 at the University of Michigan School of Public Health as an independent, non-governmental, not-for-profit organization.

Performing certification to American National Standards (ANSI), using strict certification policies, helps assure safer products with verified label claims.

such as

NSF/ANSI 50 for swimming pool safety

NSF/ANSI 61 for Drinking water quality

Circular rubber ring that serves as a gasket or static seal.

It is also called O (letter of the alphabet) Ring (O-R).

Type of lubrication of the motor. The two types of motors at the technical and performance levels are the same; in the first the maintenance is simpler; in the second the maintenance is more difficult and costly.

An open contact is where an electrical current cannot pass through, breaking the electrical circuit.

A closed contact is a contact where an electrical current can pass through

Type of impeller mainly used in pumps suitable for drainage of sewage. It is called "open" because it is more suitable for pumping water with solid bodies in suspension

It is the outlet tube in which the liquid exiting a pump / circulator is conveyed.

It refers to the position of a pump. Overhead means that the pump is at a higher level than the liquid to be aspirated. Underhead means that the pump is at a lower level than the liquid to be aspirated.

Material grouped together used for mechanical seal or as gasket.

Sometimes better known as Gland Packing

PE2 insulated over PA insulation, highly efficient, copper conductor, submersible pump motor single-core winding wire.

TESLA TR submersible motors sold in America are supplied with PE2-PA insulated windings as these are more suitable for use with inverters than the PVC insulated windings due to there resistance to higher temperatures.

In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. The scale is from 1 to 14. One is extremely acid, 14 extremely basic. 7 in neutral.

The Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is an AC synchronous motor whose field excitation is provided by permanent magnets, and has a sinusoidal Back EMF waveform.

• With permanent magnets the PMSM can generate torque at zero speed
• Higher torque density versus AC Induction Motor
• Smaller frame size for same power
• High efficiency operation
• Requires digitally controlled inverter to operate 

Pressure means weight per unit of area (e.g. psi or Kg/cm2). In case of liquids the pressure that the liquid exerts on a surface is given buy the product of the head of the liquid, multiplied by its specific weight. A Column of water of  28 inches high is equivalent to 1psi or 10 m high is equivalent to approximately 1 Kg/cm2

The pressure drops are the loss of energy caused by the rubbing of the liquid along the pipe walls (viscous friction) and the localized pressure drop due to the presence of shrinkage, curves, valves etc.

A device that allows to activate / deactivate a motor / pump when a given pressure value is reached.

Container that stores water in the delivery on a hydraulic system which allows pressurized water to be delivered  in case of small demands. Pressure vessels also reduce water hammer in pressurized systems.

It is the power of a pump (the ability to lift water from one level to another).

The capacity of a pump to elevate a certain number of cubic meters of water to a certain height, the maximum lift height, usually expressed in m3 (water column meters).

10 mca = 1 bar

Prevalence is given by several variables, such as the geodetic aspiration height and the geodetic height of the mandate.

Priming of a pump is defined as the phase during which the machine is filled with water through the intake duct or priming port.

If the operation is successful, the machine can work smoothly and define as “primed".

The first priming must always be done manually following the procedure described in the manual.

The manuals of all of our products can be found here on our site or our DNA software.

PSI is the abbreviation of Pounds per Square Inch which is the most common measurement of pressure used in America.

In our case a pump is a machine that can convert electricity into hydraulic energy transmitted to a liquid. The transmitted energy causes the liquid to move. All pumps are made of two basic components: electric motor and hydraulic part. Circulators are particular types of pumps.

Indicate a new start of the pump. The reset can be automatic (if the pump starts automatically) or manual (if the operator must reset it).

Polyvinyl chloride is the vinyl chloride polymer, a plastic material with many uses, such as water pipes, electrical wiring, floors and window structures.

Qualified personnel mean the persons who, by virtue of their training, experience and education, as well as the knowledge of the relevant regulations, have been authorized by the plant security officer to perform any necessary activity and is being able to know and avoid any danger (definition for technical staff IEC 364).

Analog sensor with 0-5 volt signal.

RCD or GFCI Ground Fault Circuit Interupter

Safety device that interrupts electrical current in case of electric dissipation or ground-to-ground link. It comes into operation when it detects anomalies between the electric currents detected at input and output from the electrical system.

Electric switch controlled by electrical supply.

Usually with Normally Open  (NO) or Normally Closed (NC) contacts

The roman wells are those with circular base with pulleys and buckets to draw the water from the bottom.

In electric motors is the moving part (rotating) while the stator is the fixed part.

Literally, "setting point", i.e. value to set, it is found in some of our products and can always be set manually or by the initial wizard.

The Single Phase alternating current system in North America is either 115v or 230 volts 60 Hz

115v is more common in residential system.

230v is more common in industrial system or in larger Horse Power single phase applications.

Specific weight : Is defined as weight per unit volume.

The specific weigh of a liquid or a fluid is the weight per unit volume of the liquid.

Specific weight is usually measured in Kg/dm3 or Kg/l (one L is 1 dm3).

A commonly used value is the specific weight of water on Earth at 4°C, which is 9.807 kN/m3 or 62.43 lbf/ft3.

Type of electrical connection in the three-phase motors, the symbol for the star connection is Y. This connection decreases the voltage from the 400 V of the line to the 230 V on the windings. In a 230 V line it can also be used to further reduce the operating voltage and reduce the power consumption: a voltage across the windings will be equal to 155 V.

It is used in three-phase motors to allow the motor to start with less power at start-up (to reduce the electric absorption), passing from star to delta link after a few moments.

In high power motors, to avoid excessive current at the starting point, the "star-delta" starter is used; it consists in starting the star motor (Y connection) for a few seconds, then making it work normally in a Delta (Δ connection). There are special timers for this delicate maneuver, usually lasting half a second, just enough to make the contacts of the command remote control switches. Starting with a star, we have a starting current reduced by 1/3, when the motor is then stopped, it does not perform this exchange.

In electric motors the stator is the fixed part, while the rotor is the moving part.

A type of mechanical seal that uses gland packing that is squeezed against the pump shaft to make a liquid tight seal. Require regular maintenance.

Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the total equivalent height that a fluid is to be pumped, taking into account friction losses in the pipe.

TDH = Static Height + Static Lift + Friction Loss

where:
Static Height is the maximum height reached by the pipe after the pump (also known as the 'discharge head').

Static Lift is the height the water will rise before arriving at the pump (also known as the suction head).

Friction Loss (or Head Loss).

For a relatively incompressible fluid such as water, TDH is simply the pressure head difference between the inlet and outlet of the pump, if measured at the same elevation and with inlet and outlet of equal diameter.

TDH is also the work done by the pump per unit weight, per unit volume of fluid.

The document that contains the technical details of a product, such as pressure, flow rate, type of liquid supported, building material of the impeller and other technical information.

A Totally Enclosed, Fan-Cooled (TEFC) electric motor is a type of industrial electric motor with an enclosure that does not permit outside air to freely circulate through the interior of the motor. An external fan blows outside air over the frame of the motor to cool it. This motor is arguably the most commonly used motor in ordinary industrial environments. TEFC enclosed motors usually cost more than open motors, but offer increased protection against weather, dirt, and moisture.

TEFC motors are constructed with a small fan on the rear shaft of the motor, covered by a housing. This fan forces air over the motor frame fins, and cools the motor. The enclosure is "Totally Enclosed". This means that the motor is dust tight, and has a moderate water seal as well. TEFC motors are not secure against high pressure water nor submersible. They are also not explosion proof without additional modifications.

It is a combined system of three AC circuits in America at 230 or 460 volts at 60 Hz. In Canada 230 or 460 or 575 volts at 60 Hz.

In Europe three phase power supply's are usually 380 to 415 v 50Hz

Three-phase connections can take place at star or delta.

UL LLC Formerly Underwriters Laboratories
 

UL LLC is a global safety certification company headquartered in Illinois. 

Established in 1894 it was known throughout the 20th century as Underwriters Laboratories and participated in the safety analysis of many of that century's new technologies.

UL is one of several companies approved to perform safety testing by the U.S. federal agency Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).OSHA maintains a list of approved testing laboratories, which are known as Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories.

A valve is an organ or mechanism that serves to regulate the flow of fluids or gases in pipes.

The Venturi nozzle is a particular conformation of a pipe that utilize the Venturi (or hydrodynamic paradox) effect, the physical phenomenon discovered and studied by the Italian physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi. When a velocity increases, a fluid stream decreases in pressure . At a practical level this is a reduction in the pipe section (or in the increase of the same, in this case the pressure increases and the speed decreases). It is a component in self-priming pumps (e.g. our JET pumps).

The volt is the unit of measurement of the International System.

The volt is the electrical potential difference.

It is called “Volt” in honor of the Italian physicist of the end of 1700, Alessandro Volta.

The volumetric pump works by utilizing the volume variation of a chamber to cause the suction of a liquid.

In the case of pumps, the volute is the component that directs the liquid leaving the pump.

Water cooled motors are designed the use the liquid being pumped instead of the a fan forcing air past the motor which has the benefit of eliminating the noise generated by the fans.

Water cooled motor do not require airflow for cooling and so can be fitted inside boxes without the need for ventilation.

Water Hammer is a hydraulic phenomenon that occurs when a valve is suddenly opened or the flow of fluid moving inside the pipes is abruptly blocked.

It is a negative phenomenon because it can damage the pipes and the mechanical part of the pump if the liquid strikes the walls violently.

Measurement of the International System for power. It is named after James Watt (1736 - 1819) for his contribution to the development of the steam engine.

It is a circulator in which the rotor is cooled by the liquid itself.

Under the Wi-Fi name there are different technologies for wireless connection of devices to the Internet or LAN.

The "wizard" is a guide on some of our products that help the user during the product configuration by "guiding" it through the various settings.

Intersection point between the plant curve and the hydraulic pump curve (can be calculated via our DNA software, it is where the pump stabilizes to ensure a certain performance).